Hazard Recognition

From the Preamble to NIOSH's National Occupational Research Agenda (NORA) Statement on Reproductive Hazards:

"While more than 1,000 workplace chemicals have shown reproductive effects in animals, most have not been studied in humans. In addition, most of the 4 million other chemical mixtures in commercial use remain untested. Physical and biological agents in the workplace that may affect fertility and pregnancy outcomes are practically unstudied. The inadequacy of current knowledge coupled with the ever-growing variety of workplace exposures pidose a potentially serious public health problem."

General Information

The following references provide general information that addresses the following issues:

• What are reproductive hazards?

  Reproductive hazards are substances or agents that may affect the reproductive health of women or men or the ability of couples to have healthy children. Hazards may be chemical, physical or biological. Examples of reproductive hazards are lead (chemical), radiation (physical) and certain viruses (biological).

• What are the routes of exposure?

  Workers may be exposed to reproductive hazards by breathing them in (inhalation), by contact with skin (dermal) and by swallowing them (ingestion).

• What are the potential health effects of exposure?

  Potential health effects include infertility, miscarriage, birth defects and developmental disorders in children.

• Can a worker expose his/her family to these hazards?

  Yes, a worker can expose his/her family to these hazards by bringing them home from the workplace, for example, on his/her skin, hair, clothes, shoes, tools or car. It is important to prevent these exposures by the use of workplace engineering controls, proper work practices and good hygiene.

  • The Effects of Workplace Hazards on Female Reproductive Health. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS), National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) Publication No. 99-104, (February 1999). Addresses exposure, prevention, and reproductive hazards for female workers and their unborn babies.
  • The Effects of Workplace Hazards on Male Reproductive Health. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS), National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) Publication No. 96-132, (1996). Identifies steps to reduce or prevent workplace exposure to reproductive hazards.

Chemical Reproductive Hazards

• OSHA Technical Manual (OTM). OSHA Directive TED 01-00-015 [TED 1-0.15A], (January 20, 1999).
  • Hospital Investigations: Health Hazards. Deals briefly with the hazards of anesthetic agents and antineoplastic drug exposures in the hospital setting.
• Update on Hazardous Drugs. OSHA, (August 1, 2016). A recent systematic review of existing programs and requirements.
• Ethylene Oxide. OSHA Fact Sheet, (2002). Provides list of exposure hazards including reproductive hazards with safety measures and controls outlined by the Ethylene Oxide standard.
• Ethylene Oxide Sterilizers in Health Care Facilities: Engineering Controls and Work Practices. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS), National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) Publication 89-115 (Current Intelligence Bulletin 52), (July 1989). Describes exposure control methods for sterilizers, including Work Practice Guidelines, available to copy and post at sterilizers, supply cylinders, and mechanical access rooms.
• Ethylene Oxide (EtO):Understanding OSHA's Exposure Monitoring Requirements Making the Right Decisions – How to Comply with the EtO Standard. OSHA Publication 3325, (2007).
• Small Business Guide for Ethylene Oxide. OSHA Publication 3359, (2009). Helps employers understand the EtO standard with particular emphasis on how to monitor air quality in workplaces where EtO is processed, used or handled.
• Occupational Exposure to Antineoplastic Agents. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) Workplace Safety and Health Topic. This is an expanded bibliography of related publications drawn from the published literature related to the Alert above. Additional information can also be found on NIOSH Workplace Safety and Health Topic Hazardous Drug Exposures in Health Care.
• Preventing Occupational Exposure to Antineoplastic and Other Hazardous Drugs in Health Care Settings. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS), National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) Publication No. 2004-165, (September 2004). Increases awareness among healthcare workers and their employers about the health risks posed by working with hazardous drugs and provides them with measures for protecting their health.
• Anesthetic Gases: Guidelines for Workplace Exposures. OSHA, (Revised May 18, 2000). Provides preventive measures to help minimize hazards including reproductive hazards from exposure to anesthetic gases.
• NIOSH Warns: Nitrous Oxide Continues to Threaten Health Care Workers. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS), National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) Publication No. 94-118, (June 14, 1994). Warns health professionals that scavenging systems need to be continuously monitored and maintained to effectively reduce exposure to nitrous oxide.
• Controlling Exposures to Nitrous Oxide During Anesthetic Administration. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS), National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) Publication No. 94-100, (1994). A Worker/Employer Summary Sheet is also available. Presents control measures for preventing or greatly reducing exposure to nitrous oxide during the administration of anesthetic gas.
• For additional information on hazardous drugs, see OSHA's Hazardous Drugs Safety and Health Topics Page.

Physical Reproductive Hazards

• Women in the Construction Workplace: Providing Equitable Safety and Health Protection. OSHA, (June 1999). Recognizes the unique risks associated with females in construction trades, including reproductive hazards.
• OSHA Technical Manual (OTM). OSHA Directive TED 01-00-015 [TED 1-0.15A], (January 20, 1999).
  • Hospital Investigations: Health Hazards. Deals briefly with the hazards of anesthetic agents and antineoplastic drug exposures in the hospital setting.
    • Physical Agents. Contains general exposure and health effects information for ionizing radiation sources in health care facilities.
• Ionizing Radiation Fact Book. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Publication 402-F-06-061, (March 2007). Contains a general description of ionizing radiation types, sources, and health effects.
• Radiation Emergencies and Pregnancy. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Discusses possible health effects to unborn babies from exposure to radiation.

Biological Reproductive Hazards

• Healthcare-associated Infections (HAIs). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Provides a list of primary, CDC published, guidelines and recommendations for the prevention of Healthcare-Associated Infections.
• OSHA Technical Manual (OTM). OSHA Directive TED 01-00-015 [TED 1-0.15A], (January 20, 1999).
  • Hospital Investigations: Health Hazards. Deals briefly with the hazards of anesthetic agents and antineoplastic drug exposures in the hospital setting.
    • Biological Agents - Blood and Body Fluids. Reproductive consequences to female workers range from congenital anomalies to death of the fetus following exposure to certain bloodborne pathogens.